Arguments Against Relativism

There is plenty of evidence favoring the genuineness of a relativistic attitude in a wide variety of situations. Cultural relativism, religious relativism, linguistic relativism, scientific relativism, relativism moving from different historical perspectives or miscellaneous social positions: this is just the beginning of a list of sources motivating the genuineness of contrasting perspectives on a specific topic at hand. And yet, on some occasions, one may want to resist the idea that the relativistic stance is the best theoretical option: in some cases, it just seems that one of the contrasting views should ​get it more right than the others. On what grounds could such a claim be made? Truth The first ground on which a relativistic attitude can be resisted is truth. If you accept relativism, while holding a certain position, it seems that you are at once undermining that position. Suppose, for instance, that you claim that abortion shall never be endorsed while agreeing that such a judgment is relative to your upbringing; aren’t you at once conceding that abortion may be reasonably endorsed by those who had a different upbringing? Thus, it seems, a relativist is committed to the truth of a claim X, while holding at once that X may not be true when contemplated from a different perspective. That seems an outright contradiction. Cultural Universals A second point that has been stressed is the presence of universal traits across different cultures. True enough the idea of a person, of beauty, of good, of family, or of private property differ across cultures; but, if we look close enough, we can also find common traits. It can hardly be disputed that human beings can adapt their cultural development to the circumstances they come to live in. No matter who your parents are, you can equally learn English or Tagalog if you grow up with a community of native speakers of one or the other language; ditto for traits concerning manual or bodily skills, such as cooking or dancing. Common Traits in Perception Even when it comes to perception, it is easy to see that there is an agreement across different cultures. No matter what your culture is, it is probable that a powerful earthquake or a fierce tsunami will elicit fear in you; no matter your social upbringing, you will be moved by the beauty of the Grand Canyon. Similar considerations hold for the brightness of the sun at midday or the feeling of discomfort provoked by a room at 150 degrees Fahrenheit. While it is certainly the case that different human beings have different experiences of the nuances of perceptions, there seems also to be a shared common core, on the basis of which a non-relativistic account of perception may be built. Semantic Overlap What goes for perception goes also for the meaning of our words, that which is studied by the branch of Philosophy of Language that goes under the name of Semantics. When I say â€Å"spicy† I may not mean exactly what you mean; at the same time, it seems that there has to be some kind of overlap in meaning if the communication is effective at all. Thus, what my words mean cannot be fully relative to my own perspective and experience, on pain of an impossibility of communication.

Ethical Obligations And Decision Making Of Accounting

Fraud is intentionally or deliberately deceives others, which led others lose their benefits or person who made fraud obtain benefits. There are three elements of fraud occurrence, which is called the fraud triangle (exhibit 1): incentives or pressure, opportunity, and rationalization; also people will rationalize their fraud. (exhibit 11, from book â€Å"Ethical Obligations and Decision Making in Accounting† page 253 by Steven M. Mintz and Roselyn E. Morris) The fraud incentives or pressure. The pressure on fraudsters is the first condition occurred fraud. Such as financial stability or profitability is threatened by economic condition, industry condition or business condition; management has pressure to meet the requirements or†¦show more content†¦Under a great pressure, fraudsters will try their best to find any little opportunity, and of course they will look for the best way to cover their malicious actions. The ability to find excuses for their fraud. An excuse can be looked as an attitude, character or value, so that fraudsters can make a dishonest action, or fraudsters’ environment can facilitate their ability to rationalize their fraud. Excuse is one of the important conditions for the occurrence of fraud. Only fraudsters able to rationalize their behavior, they can succeed to ease mind after the fraud. Such as management attitudes misconduct or lack of good reputation, or the tense relationship between management and the current or former auditors, all will make fraudsters to mix their personal interests with collective interests. In addition, there are several common types of fraud, which are as follow: First, fraudulent financial reporting, which include: manipulate, falsify or alter accounting entries or related documents; or deliberately ignoring in financial statements, misrepresentation, and intentional wrong accounting principles. Second, misappropriation of assets: Accounts embezzlement; misappropriation or theft of cash, inventory, or equipment; overpayments or early payment of money. All organizations are

Pernicious Anemia free essay sample

Anemia is a disorder of the blood. It occurs when your body does not produce enough erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBCs). Without the erythrocytes oxygen can not be adequately delivered to the tissues and organs throughout the body. This will cause you to become weak and tired. A person may also experience headaches, skin pallor, and faintness. Your body may attempt to compensate for these symptoms by speeding up the heart rate and respiratory rate. This is the body’s attempt to return oxygen levels to normal(Thibodeau and Patton, 2005). There are several different types of anemia. Some of those are hemorrhagic, iron-deficiency, aplastic, and pernicious. Pernicious anemia is a type of anemia due to a vitamin B-12 deficiency and lack of intrinsic factor. Intrinsic factor is an protein found only in the stomach and is responsible for the absorption of B-12. The stomach may not produce intrinsic factor due to stomach surgery, such as gastric bypass, parasites or an overgrowth of bacteria in the intestines, Crohn’s or Celiac disease. The lack of intrinsic factor is also an autoimmune disease for some people(Pernicious Anemia, n. d. Pernicious anemia is more common among those who are Scandinavian or Celtic, and in the elderly. This type of anemia was referred to as pernicious because of the deadly outcome it had at one time. Doctors knew that patients were anemic but common cures for anemia did not work. This was until the 1920’s when two physicians, George Minot and William Murphy, joined together and realized that certain foods restored patient health and red blood cells drastically. The best type of food for pernicious anemia was liver. The doctors didn’t understand why but seen great improvements in a very short time period (Jacovino, 1998). Another physician, William Castle, also helped to cure the disease. In one experiment he ate liver, made himself vomit, and fed it to his patients. Oddly enough this strange idea worked. His unusual method led to the discovery of intrinsic factor. A protein found only in the stomach. Later on it was revealed that the intrinsic factor allowed absorption of vitamin B-12. B-12 is abundant in liver and is what made the liver therapy a success (Jacovino, 1998). The lack of intrinsic factor in the stomach leads to a vitamin B-12 deficiency. Vitamin B-12 is necessary for production of normal, healthy red blood cells. Without B-12, red blood cells become to large(macrocytic) and do not carry enough oxygen to supply the body. Without enough oxygen the body can not function normally and a person is said to be anemic (Pernicious Anemia, n. d. ). There are many different signs and symptoms of pernicious anemia. As mentioned before, the classic sign is the feeling of being tired and weak at all times. Other signs and symptoms can include having a bright red, smooth tongue, tingling and numbness in the hands and feet, shortness of breath (Mary J. Shomon, n. d. ) There is also changes in a persons nervous system. Such changes are seen in the patients vision, taste, and smell. The patient may also have an unsteady gait, become depressed, confused, have a loss of memory and develop psychosis. Problems can even occur in the digestive system. This would include bleeding gums, mouth sores, nausea and vomiting. Gas, heartburn, change in bowel movements (constipation or diarrhea), and weight change are some other symptoms. Evan hepatomegaly can be part of the disease process. Left untreated pernicious anemia can lead to heart failure/heart attacks and strokes. The disease also puts a person at risk for stomach cancer(Pernicious Anemia, n. d. ) Prevention is possible if your anemia is due to poor dietary habits. A vegetarian or someone who has gastric bypass can improve their symptoms by eating a foods rich in vitamin B-12. Foods to include in your diet would be: *meat(especially liver), poultry, and shellfish *orange juice and milk *leafy green vegetables *rice, barley, and cereal *legumes A person can also increase vitamin B-12 intake with supplements. There are several to choose from. Vitamin B-12 can be found in daily vitamins or by themselves(Pernicious Anemia, n. d. ) There is different test that will be ordered by your physician to diagnos the condition. A complete blood count is one of those. This will determine your hematocrit and hemoglobin levels. A complete blood count will also show the amount and size of the erythrocytes. Other blood test will include test that check B-12 and folic acid deficiencies, elevated levels of homocysteine, and a decreased potassium and cholesteral level. The physician will also be looking for antibodies to intrinsic factor that will be present in the body. The reticulocytes, which are immature red blood cells, will be counted. They will be low in pernicious anemia. Another procedure, bone marrow aspiration, might be performed to see if the bone marrow is producing sufficient red blood cells, and to make sure the RBCs are healthy(Pernicious Anemia, n. d. ) You may also have to have two urine test. One test will measure the amount of methymalonic acid. Methymalonic acid is high in pernicious anemia. The other urine test is called a Schilling test. The Schilling test will determine if the body is absorbing vitamin B-12 normally. To perform this test you must first take an oral dose of B-12 that has radioactive markers, then hours later receive an injection of B-12 without the radioactive markers. Urine samples will be collected for the next 24 hours. If results are abnormal, there are three more stages of the Schilling test that you have to complete to determine the reason why you can not absorb B-12(Schilling Test, n. d. Once diagnosed by a physicain and it is determined that you have pernicious anemia, there is treatment available. The two most common options are vitamin supplements and injections. B-12 also comes in a gel and nasal spray form. Europeans have been researching a nasal spray form of hydryocobalamin and this research is showing promising results(Shomon, n. d. ). After initial testing and treatment you will be required to see your doctor on a regular basis. Routine visits will make sure that treatment is working, B-12 levels are normal in the body, and to monitor effects caused by anemia. Check to see if nerve damage is getting better/worse, and watching for stomach cancer. ) Pernicious anemia is a devasting condition that will cause damage to all parts of the body, may lead to cancer, and eventually cause death if left untreated. But is easily diagnosed through blood and urine testing. It is easily treated with a diet high in vitamin B-12 and supplemental B-12. The symptoms usually start to improve within days and diminish over time. Some problems do have a life long effect, but most are treatable and reversible with proper treatment.